Introduction

There has been a growing attention towards menstruation and menstrual management in the last few years. This mostly comes as a reaction to the lack of strategies to ensure adequate menstrual management and reduce menstrual inequities and promote menstrual health, along with a lack of research and sociopolitical awareness [1–3]. As other researchers and organisations, we advocate for menstrual health as a public health and human rights issue [4]. Menstrual products are often referred to as “feminine products”, “sanitary products” or “feminine hygiene”, all terms reinforcing menstrual-related stigma and taboo [5] and underlining menstruation as being socially expected to be concealed and managed in private spheres [6].

Non-reusable products (e.g., tampons or pads) are the most accessible, and often most conventional to use. Interestingly, nearly all research has focused on investigating the use and acceptability of reusable products (e.g., menstrual cup, reusable pads or menstrual underwear) rather than non-reusable products. The reusable products are increasingly gaining attention as new tools for menstrual management [7]. Available evidence suggests that the menstrual cup is generally acceptable [7–10] and may positively contribute to reducing menstrual-related school absenteeism [11] and thus play a part in attaining menstrual equity. Menstrual cups are also perceived to be more environmentally friendly and have less economic impact [11], although reusable products are not affordable [12] or acceptable to all women and people who menstruate (PWM). In fact, investigating the use and perceptions of menstrual products is imperative to menstrual poverty research. Based on our research, we defined menstrual poverty as: 1) not being able to afford menstrual products, 2) not being able to choose preferred products, and 3) having to prioritise menstrual products over other products or activities [13].

While most research on use and acceptability of reusable products has been conducted in African and Asian countries, studies in the Global North are mostly limited to the United States [7]. Also, research on use and acceptability of products should consider how women and PWM access and use them based on different social axes such as age or place of birth. Therefore, this study aimed at assessing the use of and perceptions on menstrual products among women and PWM aged 18–55 in Spain.

Materials and methods

We conducted a mixed-methods study, part of the “Equity and Menstrual Health in Spain” project, including data from a cross-sectional and a qualitative study. The project adopts a critical and feminist perspective [14–16], questioning androcentric research and systemic sociopolitical structures that shape the experiences of women and PWM.

Results

Participant characteristics

A total of 22,823 women and PWM participated in the quantitative study. Mean age was 33.2 (SD = 8.7), ranging between 18 and 55. Participants mostly identified as women (96.8%). Non-binary participants represented the 1.4% of the sample, and 0.8% identified as trans. Almost all participants were born in Spain (93.4%) and had Spanish nationality (96.1%). Almost half were employed full-time (47.5%) and more than half had completed university-level education (69.4%). Almost half had had financial problems in the last year (43.7%) (see Table 1).

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Table 1. Sociodemographic characteristics quantitative study (N = 22,823).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265646.t001

Participants in the qualitative study were 34 women (N = 31) and PWM (N = 3) between 18 and 47 years old. Most were born in Spain (N = 30) and had Spanish nationality (N = 30). Over half were working at the time of the interviews (N = 19) and had completed university studies (N = 19). Thirteen had had financial issues in the 12 months preceding data collection (see Table 2).

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Table 2. Participant characteristics qualitative study (N = 34).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265646.t002

Use of menstrual products: Quantitative analyses

Participants (N = 22,823) used a combination of menstrual products to manage menstruation (see Tables 3 and 4). Overall, while 69.7% used non-reusable menstrual products, 54.9% used reusable menstrual products. Single-use menstrual pads were the most used product (60.6%), followed by panty liners (49.7%), the menstrual cup (48.4%), tampons (42.6%), reusable pads (15%), menstrual panties (8.7%), and menstrual sponges (0.7%). Products not designed for menstruation were also used; 5.6% reported toilet paper use, 1.4% used more than one pair of underwear to retain menstrual blood, and 0.5% used diapers. A small but compelling number of women and PWM (3.7%) did not use any product for menstrual retention (free bleeding).

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Table 3. Use of non-reusable and reusable menstrual products by age, gender identity, trans identification, country of birth, completed education and financial constraints (last 12 months) (N = 22,823).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265646.t003

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Table 4. Use of menstrual products by age, gender identity, trans identification, country of birth, completed education and financial constraints (last 12 months) (N = 22,823).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265646.t004

There were some significant differences in menstrual products’ use when data were stratified by age, gender identity, trans identification, country of birth, completed education and financial constraints in the last 12 months (see Tables 3 and 4). Significant differences were found in the usage of menstrual products by age groups. Participants aged 26–35 were the ones using more reusable products (64.1%), and particularly the menstrual cup (56.8%), reusable pads (19.1%) and menstrual panties (11.3%). The eldest group used non-reusable products the most (82.9%), including the use of tampons (53.6%) and single-use pads (75.5%).

No significant differences were found in the use of non-reusable and reusable products by gender identification. However, similarly to trans people, non-binary participants used tampons less frequently (31.4%), compared to participants identifying as women (43%). Instead, they used reusable pads more commonly (18.8%) than women (14.9%). The menstrual cup was used more by participants who identified as women (48.6%), compared to non-binary people (43.5%). Instead, non-binary participants used reusable pads (18.8%) more than those identifying as women (14.9%). Significant differences were also found between non-binary people and women in the use of panty liners (36.6% vs 50.1%), the use of more than one panty for menstrual management (2.8% vs 1.3%), nappies (1.5% vs 0.4%), toilet paper (7.9% vs 5.6%) and free bleeding (9.1% vs 3.5%).

Trans people used significantly less reusable products (43.9%) compared to cis women (55%). Compared to people who did not identify as trans, trans people used significantly less tampons (42.8% vs 23.1%) and the menstrual cup (48.6% vs 36.4%). It was also more common for trans people to use toilet paper (11.6%) or no menstrual products (8.1%), compared to cis women (5.6% and 3.6% respectively).

When stratifying findings by place of birth, participants born in Spain (69.5%), Latin American (69.0%), and European countries (70.4%) used significantly less non-reusable products, compared to participants born in other countries (82.4%). Participants born in Spain, Latin America or European countries used significantly more reusable products, compared to those born in other countries (55.2%, 53.4%, 54.8%, 37.0% respectively).

Differences in the use of non-reusable and reusable products significantly differed depending on participants’ completed education. Those who had finalised primary education used significantly more non-reusable products (84.1%), including the use of single-use pads (73.9%). Participants who had accessed university studies used significantly more reusable products (58.5%) and particularly reusable pads (16.7%), the menstrual cup (51.4%) and menstrual panties (10.3%).

Interestingly, no significant differences were found in the usage of non-reusable and reusable products between participants who had experienced financial constraints in the last 12 months, and those who did not. Significant differences were only found when looking at the use of specific products. Using reusable pads (17.7%), toilet paper (8.7%), more than one pair of underwear (2.0%), not using any menstrual products (6.7%), and diapers (0.9%) was more common among participants who experienced financial problems (<12 months) always/many times.

Discussion

This study aimed at assessing the use of and perceptions on menstrual products among women and PWM aged 18–55 in Spain. Findings from this study indicate that women and PWM in Spain use a combination of menstrual products. Non-reusable menstrual products were the most used, although more than half used reusable products, and especially the menstrual cup. Usage of menstrual products significantly differed based on age, gender identification, identifying as trans, place of birth, completed education, country of birth and experiencing financial issues. Perceptions and barriers to using menstrual products, along with barriers for menstrual management, were identified. Qualitative data have deepened and strengthened the quantitative findings, providing insights on the personal and structural reasons behind the use of different menstrual products. Perceptions on menstrual products, related fears and structural barriers for menstrual management, especially in public spaces, were identified in qualitative data. The findings support that menstrual inequity needs to be acknowledged as related to menstrual products’ use [13].

Findings by age groups indicated that younger women and PWM use reusable menstrual products more, compared to older participants. Particularly those between 26 and 35 were the ones reporting the highest use of reusable products. An explanation for these differences may be the differential access to menstrual learnings and opportunities to access a variety of menstrual products across generations [7, 22, 23]. Besides, the fact that participants from the youngest age group reported less use of reusable products than older participants may be related to agency and time for self-learnings.

Although sample sizes were small for some categories, the use of reusable products was higher in participants born in Latin America, Spain and other European countries, compared to participants born in other countries. Supported by the qualitative findings, this suggests that use and perceptions on menstrual products vary depending on the socio-cultural context. Therefore, socio-cultural and contextual factors need to be accounted for to understand the use and acceptability of menstrual products [12, 24]. For instance, some participants in our study appeared to be uncomfortable about the idea of using menstrual products that had to be inserted in the vagina. However, other factors such as age and education may intersect with place of birth and may provide a more comprehensive perspective on the differential usage of products. Future studies could explore how women and PWM may adopt (or not) public discourses and preferences on menstrual products. Research involving migrant women and PWM could be particularly meaningful.

Trans people used more non-reusable than reusable products. The use of toilet paper and not using products to manage menstruation was significantly more common among trans people and non-binary people, compared to cis participants and those identifying their gender as women. Acknowledging the needs and preferences of trans, intersex and non-binary people who menstruate is crucial [25, 26]. Besides, distress among non-binary, intersex and trans people who menstruate resulting from packaging and advertising of menstrual products portraying menstruation as to represent “hegemonic femininity”, and the fact that many menstrual products need to be inserted in the vagina has already been discussed [27–29]. The latter can also be inferred from our results.

The relationship between menstrual poverty and the use of menstrual products also needs to be discussed. Findings from the “Equity and Menstrual Health in Spain” study already indicate that menstrual poverty affects 22.2–39.9% of adult women and PWM in Spain [Medina-Perucha et al., in prep]. Data presented in this article suggest that experiencing financial issues may shape decisions made in relation to menstrual products’ use, by using more reusable pads, toilet paper, the use of more than one regular panty to contain menstrual blood, the use of no menstrual products, and diapers for menstrual management. Furthermore, toilet paper was reported to be used when menstrual products were not available in the qualitative study. However, the practice of free bleeding should be interpreted with caution, as the qualitative data indicated that some women and PWM may limit free bleeding when being at home and not bleeding abundantly. Thus, we cannot infer that not using menstrual products may always be associated with a lack of access to menstrual products. Instead, free bleeding is an active choice for some women and PWM, which could have also increased during COVID19 especially among people working from home.

Furthermore, menstrual inequity needs to be discussed when referring to the use and perceptions of menstrual products. Informed choice on menstrual products has been argued to be limited, partly due to commercial interests and the unbalanced information available on different menstrual products [7, 22, 30]. As Tarzibachi argues [31], menstrual taboo and stigma were reinforced by publicists as menstrual products were marketed as required for “feminine protection” and related to “hygiene” in the 1920s-1950s. Once women in high income countries started to enter the male-dominated workforce, menstrual products were framed as for “women’s liberation”, relegating menstruation even further to “intimate spheres”. We can also argue that the role of health professionals in offering informed-based advice for different menstrual products is underexplored. Instead, choices on menstrual products are often based on friends’ recommendations or self-learnings. Although community learnings and networks for menstrual management should be promoted, training to health professionals is necessary so that healthcare services can better respond to menstrual-related consultations [13]. In our study, usage of reusable products was also more common among participants who had completed university education, compared to those who did not. This suggests that the access to products such as the menstrual cup may not be equal to all. Instead, those who may have more access to menstrual learnings and have a more privileged social situation may have a wider access to choose how to manage their menstruation, including which products to use.

Overall, our study indicates that the menstrual cup is an acceptable product for menstrual management. Participants thought it was comfortable, cheaper in the long-term, did not smell bad (like non-reusable products do) and it allowed for women and PWM to know more about their menstruation and body. The fact that the menstrual cup is an environmentally-friendly option was another reason for participants to use it, as other research has found [32]. Previous evidence also supports our findings on the acceptability of the menstrual cups as a more comfortable and preferred product, compared to non-reusable products [8, 9].

Even if menstrual cups are more sustainable due to their durability (around 10 years), and have a reduced environmental impact as they do not use non-degradable materials [33], usage barriers need to be acknowledged. As reported by participants in our qualitative study, some women and PWM may experience pain when inserting the cup. Other barriers identified in our study were that some participants perceived that the menstrual cup could increase menstrual flow or dysmenorrhea. One participant also believed that the cup could fall off the vagina when exercising. In other research, women reported feeling a constant need to urinate, fear and/or experiencing leakage [7], and the concern that the menstrual cup could “get stuck” in the vagina [34]. Other concerns were related to the menstrual cup compromising fertility or leading to “losing virginity” [11]. Besides, despite the menstrual cup seems to be a cost-effective and acceptable option for menstrual management, menstrual education commonly fails to inform about all menstrual products available [22, 23]. Menstrual cups are not always acceptable and usually require a learning period of 2–5 months [23]. Besides, they do not always adapt to each person’s anatomy.

In our study, reusable menstrual pads were acceptable as an expensive but comfortable option to combine with other menstrual products. Reusable menstrual pads have already been positively evaluated [35], although their use might not increase social participation during menstruation [36]. A study evaluating acceptability of reusable underwear in a refugee setting in Greece showed that participants thought these products to be acceptable but not more beneficial than other conventional products and menstrual management practices. The use of menstrual underwear, in combination with other conventional products, was perceived as dignifying [37].

Taboo and stigma surrounding menstruation are also barriers for menstrual management, as apparent in our findings. Some participants explained how having to wash reusable menstrual products in shared/public spaces limited the use of the menstrual cup and reusable pads. They referred to barriers in the access to adequate menstrual management facilities, disposal of menstrual products [7, 33] and spaces to wash and dry reusable products [12] suggested in previous research. Participants’ narratives also suggested that taboo and stigma may limit the use of some non-reusable menstrual products. For instance, single-use pads may not be acceptable if they can be seen through clothes and, therefore, they are not useful to conceal menstruation. Our findings also indicate that young adult women and PWM use reusable menstrual products more. This suggests that agency among younger generations may be stronger, to actively challenge the barriers to manage menstruation in public spaces, and particularly when using products such as the menstrual cup.

On the other hand, as Grose and Grabe discussed [38], adopting androcentric views and experiencing self-objectification might lead to women and PWM to use disposable (and unhealthier) menstrual products. Interestingly, in our study, different menstrual products were perceived to be healthier than others. While the menstrual cup was perceived to be healthier, tampons were depicted as to be related to the toxic shock syndrome and causing vaginal irritations [39]. Branded products were also thought to be healthier than non-branded ones, shifting participants’ decisions on menstrual products’ use [7, 22, 30].

Conclusions

Adult women and PWM in Spain use a variety, and often a combination, of menstrual products to manage menstruation. Although non-reusable products are the most commonly used, reusable products were used by over half participants. The use of menstrual products varies depending on age, completed education, country of birth and experiencing financial issues. Usage of menstrual products also differed between trans and non-binary participants and cis women. Reusable products were most commonly used among cis women, between 26 and 35 years old, born in Latin America, Spain or other European countries, and those who had completed university education. Usage of non-reusable products was higher among women and PWM aged 46 to 55, born in non-European or Latin American countries and who had only completed primary education. Reusable products (and especially the menstrual cup) were generally perceived to be more acceptable. The menstrual cup was a comfortable and environmentally-friendly option that also promoted body literacy. Choices on menstrual products are shifted by socio-cultural factors, including experiences of menstrual poverty and the unequal and limited opportunities to access information and preferred menstrual products. Future research and policy actions should involve women and PWM in policymaking processes and research projects, and focus on addressing menstrual inequity to ensure positive and healthy menstrual management. Policies should support agency and autonomy of women and PWM in making informed-choices on menstrual products. Intersectional approaches and participatory action research considering the experiences and needs of vulnerable populations may be particularly relevant. Furthermore, research on menstrual inequity and menstrual health needs to continue and attend to the needs of women and PWM.

Supporting information

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank all participants, for dedicating their time and energy to take part in the study. Thank you to Carmen Revuelta, Ramona Ortiz, Rosa Turbau Valls, Mònica Isidro Albaladejo, Enara Solana Lizarza, Paula Briales Canseco, Lola Hernández for their contributions to the study. Also, to the following people and organisations for disseminating the questionnaire and contributing to the recruitment process: Centre Jove d’Atenció a les Sexualitats (CJAS), Joventut Barcelona, La Caravana Roja, SomiArte Taller, Centro de Análisis y Programas Sanitarios (CAPS), La Vida en Rojo Asociación de Cultura Menstrual, DIM and DIM Protect, CYCLO Menstruación Sostenible, Aguas de Luna, Xusa Sanz, Cristina Luna, Sylvia de Bejar, Laia Casadevall, Irene Aterido, Celia Cuenca, EndoFem, Judit Pelegrí Alvárez, Blanca Albillos Mingorance, Julia Arquillos Jimenez, Gala Montenegro Nadal, Sílvia Martin Egido, Cristina Morote Muñoz, Marta Boqué Ramon, Anna Solé Valls, Anna Sánchez Benedet, Irene Blanco Alcántara, Frater Nadal, Abel Renuncio, Emilia Bailón, Tania Cedeño, Sociedad Española de Medicina Familiar y Comunitaria (semFYC), Banc Farmacèutic, La Nau and Ajuntament de Cornellà. Last but not least, to Anna Moleras Serra for her valuable technical assistance and management to devise the online questionnaire on LimeSurvey and during data collection.